March 2012Osean Policy Research FoundationPolicy Proposal on"Conservation and Management of Islandsand Their Surrounding Ocean Areas"Policy proposal on "Conservation and management of islands and theirsurrounding ocean areas"Ocean Policy Research Foundation1. Purpose of this policy proposalThe ocean covers some 70 percent of the earth's surface and plays a significant role in sustaininghuman life by supplying natural resources and stabilizing climate. Islands serve as an irreplaceablebase from which to protect and develop ocean resources, and conserve the marine environment andbiodiversity. Under the treaty system formed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of theSea (UNCLOS) and other international treaties, island States have the right to develop and utilizenatural resources and the responsibility to protect and preserve the marine environment, includingconserving the living resources. Since many of the island States in the Pacific Ocean have vastexclusive economic zones (EEZ), they have a key role to play in the governance of the oceans.However, these islands are faced with local environmental problems and various other problemsin the conservation and management of islands, due to global climate change and variability. Inaddition, sea level rise threatens to submerge the islands. Island States cannot adequately respond tosuch diverse problems on their own and need the help of the international community. Japan too hasmany islands, and the remoter ones are facing similar problems; close cooperation with island Statesis needed to solve these problems.This proposal focuses on island States in the Pacific Ocean, proposes directions toward solution ofthe problems faced by island States and surrounding areas by investigating how best to conserve andmanage islands, and aims to ensure the sustainable development of island States and the sounddevelopment, utilization and conservation of the oceans through cooperation between island Statesand the international community.2. Problems and issues for the management of islands and their surrounding ocean areasSpecific problems and issues for the management of islands and their surrounding ocean areascan be summarized as follows: (1) problems and issues for the conservation and management ofislands, (2) problems and issues for the management of surrounding ocean areas, and (3) problemsand issues concerning climate change and variability.(1) Problems and issues for the conservation and management of islandsTo enable island States to serve as a base for the development, utilization and conservation ofthe oceans, it is important first to appropriately conserve and manage the islands themselves. Islandsand their coastlines are exposed to natural threats, such as typhoons, tsunami, and storm surge.Regional communities of islands are affected by anthropogenic factors, such as the concentration of－ 1 －population on specific islands, improper coastal management, insufficient waste management whichworsens the coastal environment, and the extraction of gravel.The combination of environmental and anthropogenic pressures has caused physical changes tothe coastline of islands (erosion, deposition and movement of islands), flooding of islands, salinityintrusion of the ground water system, and changes to the health of coral reefs and reef dwellingorganisms. Such changes threaten the physical stability of islands, and the infrastructure andresources of the local community. These local problems have further reduced the resilience andcapacity of islands and their ecosystems to recover from the impact of extreme events, globalenvironmental changes and sea level rise.To address these local problems, it is recommended that island States conserve and manage theirislands. However, since their human, financial and organizational capacities are often limited,international cooperation is needed.(2) Problems and issues for the management of surrounding ocean areasUnder UNCLOS, which provides an international framework for the governance of oceans, eachstate is supposed to manage its surrounding ocean areas including its exclusive economic zone.Since EEZs of island States in the Pacific Ocean cover a major part of the Pacific Ocean, theseStates play a significant role in managing the ocean. Under UNCLOS, island States have thesovereign right to develop and utilize living resources, energy and mineral resources in their vastEEZs, as well as responsibility to conserve the marine environment; they therefore need to fosterefforts towards integrated management of the development, utilization and conservation of theirEEZs. For this purpose, island States need to define their maritime jurisdiction, appropriatelymanage fisheries, maintain and secure maritime transportation, develop marine mineral and energyresources, and conserve and use sustainably the marine environment and marine biological diversityin their maritime zones.However, due to the lack of human, financial, and organizational resources, island States facedifficulties in the integrated management of their surrounding oceans. International cooperation istherefore a necessity.(3) Problems and issues for the response to climate change and variabilitySince coral reefs and other marine ecosystems of islands have been damaged by climate changeand variability, some island States are facing the risk of being submerged, partly or entirely, in thelong term. This threatens not only the security of the islands' physical environment but also thelivelihood of inhabitants who depend on agriculture or fisheries. Climate change and variability alsothreaten island States in various other ways, placing greater load on coastal resources, water quality,and so on.－ 2 －For island States to cope with these issues, it is important to clearly distinguish global problems(climate change and variability) from local problems, to create a system for the scientific analysisand prediction of the cause and effect of each problem, and to respond appropriately. It is alsonecessary to cope with problems under international law caused by the climate change-induced risein the sea level. However, island States do not have the capacity to take such measures. Once again,international cooperation is needed.3. Directions toward solutionThere are various approaches to tackling each of the issues listed in section 2. In the followingdescriptions, the actions to be performed mainly by island States are abbreviated as "island States",those to be performed by the international community are abbreviated as "international community",and those to be performed by both island States and the international community are abbreviated as"island States and the international community".(1) Conservation and management of islands① Management strategy of islands and the formulation of land use plans and coastalprotection plans"Island States"To overcome the natural threat or influence of climate change and variability, and toappropriately conserve and manage their national land while preventing environmental deteriorationinduced by expansion of human activities, island States need to take the following steps:・ Comprehensive strategy to manage islandsIn order for a local community to co-exist with natural dynamics of islands, it is necessary tocreate a comprehensive management strategy to control the threats to biophysical systems of islands.Such a management strategy should aim to maintain the life-supporting capacity and naturaldynamism of islands and their associated ecosystems. It should also aim to reflect the diversity ofisland types, to identify the complicated interaction of biophysical systems of islands (human beings,land, water and ecology), and to embrace a broad range of practical solutions consisting of land useplans and coastal protection plans, as well as hard and soft engineering tools. As for the increase inurban population and associated problems, solutions based on an overall consideration of balanceddevelopment are desirable, if possible, by considering utilization of local areas and uninhabitedislands from long-term perspective.・ Appropriate land use planIn order to realize balanced utilization of national land, it is desirable to draw up an appropriateland use plan, by taking into account the geomorphological features of each island and the situationof land use.－ 3 －・ Appropriate coastal protection planThe shapes of islands are changing in various ways. In areas where land is decreasing, there maybe inappropriate development of coastal protection facilities and modification of land forms,resulting in coastal erosion. To improve the situation, it is desirable to draw up a coastalconservation plan including, for example, practical use of the natural dynamism of coral reefs, with afull consideration of the mechanisms involved in formation and erosion of the coast."International community"In order to investigate the status of land use, natural environment and its vulnerability to disastersand appropriate countermeasures against them, the international community needs to increase theirsupport to island States in terms of both hard and soft measures, and support the collection ofinformation and data for drawing up abovementioned strategies and plans. Support for capacitybuilding for the collection and analysis of information and data is also needed, so that island Statescan carry out such activities autonomously and continuously in order to cope with the varyingnatural environment. Furthermore, it is necessary to cooperate in terms of development andimplementation of strategies and plans for the conservation and management of islands, bysupporting the development of robust environmental and socio-economic baselines which contributeto formulating management strategies.② Formation of local communities which are resilient to disasters"Island States"Island States need to develop detailed information for predicting damage and evaluation ofhazards, classified by type of disaster (such as typhoon, earthquake, storm surge, tsunami) and cause,based on scientific knowledge. It is necessary to enhance monitoring systems, prepare protection andevacuation facilities (such as tsunami shelters), strengthen education programs for residents on howto reduce natural disaster damage, examine the best ways of distributing disaster informationaccording to the characteristics of each island, and construct an information system to convey naturaldisaster information quickly and effectively to residents. Such information should be provided toisland States in advance or be obtained by their own measurements. It is necessary to developcomprehensive disaster preparedness plans and their implementation systems, including theabovementioned measures, in order to build resilient local communities in terms of both hard andsoft measures.In order to create local communities which are resilient to disasters, it is also desirable to drawup and promote appropriate land use plans and national land plans, including policies such asrestricting use of land vulnerable to disasters, based on risk assessments. It is also necessary todevelop evacuation facilities (shelters) for residents living in places that are vulnerable to damage,－ 4 －especially on small islands."International community"In order to cooperate with these efforts by island States, the international community needs toactively provide meteorological information and improve observation facilities as the base of eacharea, through studies by related international organizations. It is necessary to support scientificresearch and sharing of information and data regarding the disaster risk for each island, and tosupport the development and improvement of comprehensive disaster preparedness plans and theirimplementation, from technical, capacity building, and financial perspectives. Furthermore, it isnecessary to support capacity building through training and scholarship programs, etc., so that islandStates may independently collect, analyze and update the meteorological data.Japan has been assisting disaster countermeasure projects in Fiji, the Solomon Islands, Samoa,and elsewhere, and is expected to continue and expand such support efforts.③ Promotion of waste management measures"Island States"It is recommended that island States draw up and carry out strategies or plans for waste reductionappropriate to their situations in the short-term and mid-to-long term, in line with their population,land area, and human power limitations.Especially, there is an urgent need to improve waste disposal facilities which could affect theregion's environment, and to introduce measures to reduce waste (introduction of 3R and refusecompost). It is also important to improve the understanding and awareness of the residents aboutwaste problems.It is desirable that island States consider using economic mechanisms for controlling the inflowof goods as sources of waste. In addition, establishing zero-waste policy ("bring it in, take it out ")should be considered."International community"Regarding short-term strategies such as development of waste disposal facilities andimprovement of existing facilities, and long-term strategies such as reducing waste itself, theinternational community should study what kind of model can be proposed. Based on such measures,the international community should also propose best practices according to the type of island, andsupport island States by providing materials for decision making. Possible practices include:introducing the 3R system in countries with a large land area and human resources, improvingsewage treatment facilities in densely populated areas, and increasing the use of compost toilets(including training on their use) in countries and areas where it is difficult to install large-scale－ 5 －sewage treatment facilities. In addition to providing best practices, it is desirable to showunsuccessful cases in the past as well as the reasons for their failure, to assist in the decision-makingprocess.Japan has been assisting waste management projects in Samoa, Palau, Fiji, and elsewhere, and isexpected to continue and expand such support efforts.④ Promotion of renewable energy development"Island States"It is important for island States which are striving towards economic independence to urge theirlocal communities not to be too dependent on imported energy. It is desirable therefore that islandstates promote the utilization and development of renewable energy, such as photovoltaic power,wind power, wave power, ocean current power, and ocean thermal energy conversion, by grantingincentives such as subsidies and tax benefits to entrepreneurs involved in development. It is alsonecessary to change attitudes on the political level, such as through a campaign for saving power andenergy, as well as to promote energy saving by raising citizens' awareness."International community"Besides supporting technology development of energy industries in island States, theinternational community should support research on the natural conditions of each State, and theenergy development suitable for the potential of natural conditions there. If the cost differentialremains within permissible limits, following a comparison between fossil fuel and renewable energy,renewable energy development should be given preference. It is important that electric power supplyand consumption are efficiently controlled by using smart grids. Furthermore, technology transfer toisland States should be performed by promoting technical development, such as reducing costs andthe need for maintenance.Japan has been assisting projects to introduce clean energy by using solar power in Palau, theMarshall Islands, Tonga, Micronesia, and elsewhere, and is expected to continue and expand suchsupport efforts.⑤ Conservation of coral reefs and mangrove forests"Island States"Coral reefs and mangrove forests play an important role in disaster prevention and marineenvironment protection by, for example, preventing coastal erosion, but erosion can occasionally becaused by unsuitable coastal protection works. Therefore, a multifaceted approach to maintainingislands by using well-designed structures and beach nourishment, and a long-term approach whichtakes into account the ecological system consisting of coral and foraminifera, are required.－ 6 －Regarding beach nourishment, which is an effective technology for land development andenvironment development, the environmental considerations of sand mining on the island and costreduction by using simple sand transportation technology should be studied."International community"The international community needs to support a multifaceted approach by island States based onthe aforementioned utilization plan and conservation plan for conserving coral reefs and mangroveforests in consideration of the environmental and geomorphologic features of the islands."Island States and the international community"Island States and the international community must recognize the urgent need to improve nativehabitats in oceans, not only for environmental reasons but also for disaster prevention. Furthermore,island States and the international community should promote an ecosystem-based approach such asthe establishment, spread and transfer of technologies on coral nourishment, and research andenforce measures to conserve islands through the production of sand by using foraminifera.Japan has been assisting related projects for island States in the Pacific Ocean such as Tuvalu,and at Okino-Torishima, and is expected to play a leading role in future based on its experience.⑥ Response to marine environment degradation by industry and household drainage"Island States"As marine environment degradation in island States has been caused by industry and householddrainage, it is recommended island States introduce legal systems, such as setting environmentalstandards for drainage from land, and putting in place mechanisms for monitoring compliance withthe regulations. In addition, since outflow of nutrients in drainage into the ocean has also beenaffecting marine habitats, and materials which are brought into islands, such as imported food andfertilizer, may be related to this issue, it is desirable that these materials be controlled."International community"The international community needs to support the abovementioned efforts by island Statesthrough sharing of past experiences and providing scientific knowledge.(2) Management of the ocean areas surrounding islands① Establishment of maritime jurisdiction"Island States"In order to fully implement integrated ocean management, it is necessary for island states todetermine their maritime jurisdiction. For this purpose, it is important that island States survey their－ 7 －baselines, and, when a boundary in an overlapping area with a neighboring State is not fixed,negotiate with it and fix the boundary. Such a negotiation should be based on pertinent regulations ofUNCLOS, taking into account international precedents. Where applicable, island States need tofollow procedures for extending their continental shelf, making submission to the United NationsCommission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf in accordance with UNCLOS. In addition, islandStates need to strive to ensure that the low-water line is indicated on large-scale charts and that therange of maritime zones is officially announced."International community"The international community needs to provide ongoing support to island States for necessarysurveys for setting up their baselines and maritime zones, and for updating existing ocean-relatedlegislation and charts.② Practical fishery management policy"Island States"It is desirable that island States seek to manage fishery resources, including controllingdestructive fishing by small-scale fisheries in coastal areas. It is also desirable to manage the catchquota in EEZ."Island States and the international community"Island States and their distant water fishing state partners should strengthen monitoring, control,and surveillance (MCS) at the national and regional levels to better combat IUU (illegal, unreportedand unregulated) fishing.The establishment and enhancement of law enforcement agencies such as coastguards or nationalMCS committees to coordinate and maintain law and order at sea will be effective. The possibility ofestablishing joint coastguards and multi-lateral surveillance enforcement agreements among someisland States should also be considered."International community"The international community needs to support the implementation of fishery managementmeasures based on socio-economic research on fisheries, indigenous knowledge, and communitybenefits, by fully utilizing scientific data. If the fishery management ability of island States is limited,the international community should help them establish and strengthen their fishery managementsystem, including human resource development.The international community should, through regional fisheries management organizations,promote sustainable fishing by ensuring an equitable distribution of the conservation burden, by－ 8 －removing excessive fishing capacity, by tackling IUU fishing problems, and by preventingoverexploitation of fishery resources. The development of a new system to ensure the equitabledistribution of the conservation burden should also be examined. As for establishment of coastguards,the international community should support human resource development, and provide ships andcommunications systems, and so forth. Furthermore, the international community needs to supportvalue-added processing and export of fishery products, resulting in job creation and economicdevelopment of island States.Japan has been assisting in areas such as regional fishing promotions in Fiji, Kiribati, theMarshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, andelsewhere, and is expected to continue and expand such support efforts.③ Maintenance and securing of shipping services"Island state"Island States need to maintain and secure shipping services which are essential for transportationamong islands, by taking advantage of the knowledge of traditional navigation accumulated so far. Itis desirable that Island States also seek to introduce and use ships which are easy to operate, manage,and maintain."Island States and the international community"It is desirable for island States and flag states of ships to make efforts to ensure safe and securemaritime transportation, and to prevent marine pollution and ecological damage caused by ships."International community"The international community needs to offer financial support to secure maritime transportationand technical support for human resource development as follow-up after the introduction of ships,maintenance of maritime transportation, and environmental conservation measures.Japan has been assisting the improvement in maritime security, and supporting cooperation andexchange between island countries for the safety and management of oceans in the Marshall Islands,Micronesia, Palau, and elsewhere on a private-sector basis, and is expected to continue and expandsuch support efforts.④ Exploitation of marine mineral and energy resources"Island States"Island States need to enact effective regulatory measures based on the precautionary approachand environmental impact assessment in order to exploit marine mineral and energy resources intheir territorial waters and EEZ, as well as fulfill their duty to conserve the environment. It is－ 9 －10desirable that island States also improve their legal system regarding each stage of exploration,development, and production (mining) of marine mineral and energy resources, in order to protectpublic health, living resources, safety in the operation of facilities and appropriate control of socialand financial benefits."International community"The international community needs to offer suitable support for compiling manuals forpredicting and evaluating environmental damages caused by investigation, trial digging, and mining,and support for establishing special guidelines and policies to guide all exploitation processesappropriately, and to protect the benefits and environment of island States. The internationalcommunity needs to support workshops and other activities that facilitate the smooth sharing oftechnical knowledge related to environmental impact assessments of seabed mining of minerals andenergy resources, particularly for the benefit of developing countries.Japan has been assisting surveys of resources, such as marine minerals, in the Pacific islandStates, and is expected to continue and expand such support efforts.⑤ Conservation and sustainable use of marine environment and marine biodiversity"Island States"Island States should consider utilizing a range of management tools, including Marine ProtectedAreas (MPA), and other tools to achieve integrated ocean management and Ecosystem-basedManagement (EBM), to conserve and use the marine environment and marine biodiversity in asustainable manner while taking into account local conditions and circumstances. In theestablishment and operation of MPAs, residents who have traditionally utilized the oceans need toplay a major part to ensure continuity of activity and desired effects. Other resource controlmeasures, such as reduction in fish catch pressure and banning of destructive fishing methods,should also be considered.To be effective, it is necessary that MPAs are designed around clear objectives, developed andimplemented in harmony with other objectives for use of marine space and resources. In addition,marine conservation is about stewardship, and much more than no-take areas. Accordingly, not onlyMPAs that strictly prohibit fishing but also MPAs that may allow sustainable utilization of fisheryresources should be examined. The broader approach to EBM is important for addressing thecomplex issues already facing island States, such as sustainable development, the humanenvironment and maintenance of ecosystem processes and biodiversity. In order to control MarineProtected Areas appropriately, networks between MPA administrators and working level membersshould also be formed, to develop human resources.－ 10 －"International community"With a view to the installation of new MPAs, the international community needs to strengthenthe accumulation of scientific data on the marine environment and examine proper environmentassessments. It is also required to provide technical and financial support, if necessary, toward thedevelopment of the guidelines for proper establishment of MPAs.(3) Response to climate change and variability① Adaptation to climate change and variability by island State societies"Island States and the international community"Because of their small area and vulnerability to natural threats, islands may be greatly affectedby climate change and variability. It is preferable to promote understanding of the regionalinfluences of global warming and associated climatic changes such as the rise in the sea level and theocean temperature. For this purpose, island States and the international community need to study theregional influences based on surveys of past records archived in coral or sediment. Studies on newweather phenomena such as the El Nino-Modoki is also desired, regarding the climate variationsinduced by climate systems of internal origin such as the El Nino-Southern Oscillation and IndianOcean Dipole. For this purpose, integrated studies on sea level rise, such as the improvement ofprediction technology, establishment of continuous observation system for necessary data, andpromotion of technology transfer, are required. In order to proceed with such studies, it is importantthat island States and the international community conduct scientific investigation with clear targetsand take practical measures for climate problems based on data, as well as establish an internationalobservation system at the most appropriate observation sites.In order to cope with environmental changes which island States suffer, it is necessary to make aclear distinction between global problems (climate change and variability) and local problems. Forthis purpose, it is required to prepare a system to analyze and predict the cause and effect of eachproblem scientifically, and to tackle problems appropriately.It is desirable that, among global issues, climate change, which may cause a rise in the sea leveland the ocean temperature, be addressed on a systematic basis from a long-term perspective byisland States and the international community; that is, by taking necessary measures such asimproving the observation systems for vulnerable ecosystems and resources (such as coral reefs, fish,mangroves, and coastal ecosystems), and by planned experimental research and seashore protectionmeasures. It is also necessary to strengthen the fundamental climate observation capabilities of smallislands so that fundamental data on climate irregularities such as the 10-year climatic cycle causedby the El Nino-Southern Oscillation and El Nino-Modoki, may be extensively researched.Japan has been assisting, for instance, in the enhancement of weather forecasting capabilities, inFiji, and elsewhere, and is expected to continue and expand such support efforts.－ 11 －Among local issues, coastal marine environment deterioration induced by anthropogenic factorsneeds to be addressed appropriately based on 3(1) of this proposal.In order to examine and enforce drastic measures on a long-term basis in islands where severeinfluences are expected from climate change and variability, it is desirable that island States and theinternational community classify islands according to their geo-scientific and ecological features,and then plan and enforce systematic and effective measures depending on such classification. Forthis purpose, it is important to classify islands topographically and ecologically, to clarify problemsfor each classification, and to share successful measures taken in each classification. As for islandsconsisting of atolls, a separate examination of measures is desirable, since they are most vulnerableto climate change and variability. In this case, it is also desirable to take measures against localproblems simultaneously.② Response to international law issues"International community"The low water lines of islands are important, as they constitute the normal baseline for measuringthe breadth of the territorial sea, EEZs and the continental shelves. The sea level rise due to climatechange may cause shifts in the low water lines or submergence of part or the whole of the islandterritory, but such situations are not considered in existing international rules.Under such circumstances, it is desirable for the international community to clarify the problemsin relevant provisions of UNCLOS, and promote the adoption of new rules to cope with the effectsof climate change. If related provisions of UNCLOS need to be changed, it is necessary to examinespecific methods, such as adopting a supplementary document of UNCLOS at meetings among thecountries concerned or at the United Nations General Assembly.－ 12 －This publication was carried out under the patronage of theNippon Foundation from the proceeds of motorboat racing.Policy Proposal on "Conservation and Management ofIslands and Their Surrounding Ocean Areas"March 2012Ocean Policy Research Foundation15-16, Toranomon 1-chome, Minato-Ku, Tokyo, 105-0001, JapanTEL 03-3502-1828 FAX 03-3502-2033http://www.sof.or.jp E-mail：info@sof.or.jp－ 13 －－ 14 －